Sufficiency consists of less materially intensive consumption patterns that focus on wellbeing rather than material wealth. Such consumption patterns are commonly referred to as sufficiency lifestyles and are increasingly seen as a key driver for achieving decarbonisation. However, while research finds that sustainable consumption and environmental behaviour are often associated with high social status, lower carbon footprints and lower consumption more broadly are associated in the literature with poverty and deprivation.
This article aims to investigate whether a combination of low carbon footprint and high wellbeing exists, what socio-demographic characteristics are associated with it, and to explore the actual experiences of people engaged in sufficiency lifestyles through initiatives and their characteristics. We use a mixed-methods design with data from demographically representative surveys in Denmark, Germany, Italy and Latvia (N=5,080), and in-depth interviews with participants from sufficiency-oriented intentional communities (N=90).
We find that sufficiency lifestyles are linked to a stronger inclination towards sufficiency orientation or a heightened environmental identity, accompanied by a negative correlation with social deprivation aspects. Drawing on the interviews, we find that individuals engaged in sufficiency-oriented practices tend to benefit from economic, social and cultural resources that allow them to overcome energy dependency and constraints, and that their motivations are not limited to pro-environmental behaviour.
Based on these empirical findings, we explore potential avenues for the diffusion of sufficiency-oriented lifestyles, including the establishment of binding rules through a democratic process that curb overconsumption while providing attractive low-carbon lifestyles for all. The article highlights the need to distinguish sufficiency from poverty and deprivation, and to adopt a broad conceptualisation of wellbeing that goes beyond economic indicators.
Conceptual Foundations
Sufficiency is defined as a voluntary reduction in resource consumption that maintains quality of life while staying within the planet’s boundaries (Alcott, 2008; Creutzig et al, 2022). It is often described as a lifestyle shift towards less carbon-intensive daily practices (Baumgartner et al, 2022), and is increasingly seen as a key driver for decarbonisation pathways (Samadi et al, 2017; Costa et al, 2021).
Sufficiency has been differentiated from efficiency and consistency (Samadi et al, 2017). Efficiency means that at a given level of consumption, the environmental impact is reduced because fewer energy and raw materials are used (resource reduction), while consistency means that for a given level of consumption, the environmental impact is reduced because the sources of raw materials and energy are less harmful to the environment (resource substitution) (Schäpke and Rauschmayer, 2014). In contrast, sufficiency means lowering the consumption level itself.
The social methods approach to sufficiency examines the socioeconomic, cultural, normative and behavioural dimensions of sufficiency, using both quantitative and qualitative research methods to uncover its relationships with wellbeing. This allows us to provide insights on relevant characteristics, social as well as societal structures, drivers and barriers to sufficiency-oriented lifestyles.
Methodological Considerations
Our mixed-methods design combines large-scale surveys and in-depth interviews to explore sufficiency lifestyles. The survey data allows us to quantify sufficiency lifestyles and examine associated variables, while the qualitative interviews enable us to understand the adoption processes, motivations and benefits of sufficiency-oriented practices.
The survey was conducted in Denmark, France, Germany, Italy and Latvia, with 5,080 participants. We categorised respondents into five lifestyle groups based on their carbon footprint and a wellbeing measure. Groups I and II represent “very sufficient” and “sufficient” lifestyles, respectively, with low carbon footprints and high wellbeing.
The qualitative data comes from 90 semi-structured interviews with participants in sufficiency-oriented initiatives across Denmark, France, Germany, Italy and Latvia. These initiatives cover a range of consumption changes, including absolute reductions, modal shifts, product longevity and sharing practices, within the domains of housing, nutrition, and miscellaneous consumption.
Contextual Factors Influencing Sufficiency
Our quantitative findings reveal that sufficiency lifestyles are positively correlated with sufficiency orientation or environmental identity, and negatively correlated with material deprivation. Access to economic, social and cultural resources, as well as time affluence, emerges as a key factor in enabling sufficiency-oriented practices.
The interviews further highlight the importance of social embeddedness and community support in facilitating sufficiency. Participants report benefits to their wellbeing, such as reduced mental load, strengthened social bonds, and access to healthier options. However, the availability of indirect sources of income, like savings, is crucial for making the upfront investments required for some sufficiency initiatives, such as renewable energy equipment or eco-renovations.
Sufficiency in Practice
While sufficiency-oriented initiatives are often associated with the educated middle class, a significant proportion of interviewees are currently not in employment, underscoring the importance of time affluence in enabling sufficiency practices. Engaging in sufficiency can reduce the need to rely on the labour market, and the opportunity to volunteer is a central aspect of many initiatives.
The interviews also reveal a gender dimension, with women more commonly participating in initiatives related to food, household tasks and caregiving, while men are more likely to be in leadership positions or involved in technical tasks. Efforts are made within initiatives to ensure gender equality in the division of work, though challenges remain.
Sufficiency and Societal Transformation
Our research suggests that the diffusion of sufficiency-oriented lifestyles requires addressing both individual and structural barriers. While sufficiency orientation and environmental identity are associated with sufficiency lifestyles, a general reluctance to accept limits on individual consumption is observed across all socioeconomic groups.
Participants in sufficiency-oriented initiatives often benefit from economic, social and cultural resources that allow them to overcome constraints. However, binding rules established through a democratic process may be needed to curb overconsumption and make sufficiency lifestyles accessible to all.
Policymakers and urban planners have a crucial role to play in providing the infrastructures and material environments that facilitate sufficiency, rather than relying solely on individual behaviour change. By enabling frugal-yet-comfortable lifestyles, cities and buildings could help to restrain consumption without evoking a sense of deprivation.
Conclusion
The social methods approach adopted in this research reveals the nuanced relationships between sufficiency, wellbeing, and socioeconomic factors. Sufficiency lifestyles are not simply a matter of individual choice, but are shaped by the availability of resources, social norms, and the material contexts in which people live.
To promote sufficiency-oriented lifestyles, a multifaceted strategy is needed that addresses both individual and structural barriers. This includes establishing binding rules through democratic processes, providing accessible sufficiency infrastructures, and ensuring that sufficiency is not equated with deprivation. By adopting a holistic, socially-grounded approach, we can work towards making sufficiency an attractive and achievable reality for all.
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